6.0) FIRE and SMOKE: (page 1 of 6)

6.1) Mitigation Objective:  The objective when performing mitigation services after a fire or smoke loss is to prevent the post environmental conditions of smoke, soot, hydrocarbons, nitrogen, sulfur, corrosive gases, moisture and standing water from producing irresolvable damages.

The mitigation process should include the envelope of the building, its structural members and substratum, as well as its electrical, mechanical, and telecommunication systems when affected.  While contents of value should also be mitigated.

The mitigation of any specific item or group of items should not exceed the value of the item being mitigated as described in Section 6.13.b.

6.1.a) Restoration Objective:  The objective when performing restoration services after fire, smoke or water losses is to return the damaged property to its pre-existing condition. 

Dependent on the post-damages; cleaning, restoration, or reconstruction could be required, while all three disciplines could be required within a single loss. 

The reconstruction or replacement of building components is based on like kind and quality as described in Section 6.1.b. 

Contractors should not include betterments or upgrades within their scope of work, unless the insurance policy contains betterment or up-grade provisions.  While betterment or upgrades when added by the policyholder, and extend business interruption (BI) or additional living expense (ALE) up and beyond the scope of work covered by the insurance policy, should be brought to the attention of the adjuster.

6.1.b) Like Kind and Quality:  Insurance companies will pay the replacement value of building component and content items based on like kind and quality.  The term, “like kind and quality” is based on the ever-changing styles, etc. of building components and content items.  To contractors like kind and quality means, a discontinued component or item should be replaced with a component or item having the same likeness, quality and value. (ref. 1.6)
 

6.2) Work Authorization:  Before the mitigation process begins, contractors should have an emergency response work authorization signed by the property owner(s) and/or policyholders before work commences.  The emergency response work authorization should not include the disciplines of restoration or reconstruction. The work authorization for restoration and/or reconstruction should be signed separately of the emergency response work authorization.
 

6.3) Documentation:  When performing mitigation or emergency services, contractors should document all disciplines performed.

6.4) Intentionally Left Blank:

6.5) Policy Coverage:  Before the mitigation or restoration process begins, policy type and coverage should be confirmed with the adjuster and/or insurance agent or broker.
 

6.6) Safety and Health:  All personnel shall put safety and health first.  Upon arrival to the loss site, the designated crew chief should make a safety and health inspection.  This should include atmospheric conditions as well as structural hazards.  (ref. 3.0)

Copies of MSDS sheets for all chemicals and materials should be available at the loss site at all times. 

6.6.a) Children's Belongings and Objects: Children's toys, furnishings, bedding, personal objects, etc. should be cleaned and disinfected after a fire and smoke loss.  While it, is preferable that all toys, personal objects and bedding be disposed of when used by infants of 3 years or less?
 

When a fire source contains PVC products, children’s belongings and objects should be tested for lead contaminates and remediated or discarded when lead deposits are found.  (ref. 6.16.b)  
 

6.7) Time is of the Essence:  Surfaces react quickly to smoke, soot, and gases, resulting in contractors to be racing against the clock.  This is especially true when a corrosive atmospheric condition exists. 

The following surfaces and time frames are examples of how crucial timing, as well as an adequate (in stock) supply of varying cleaning chemicals is to contractors:

- Impact: Metal and steel surfaces can be affected by hydrogen chloride (HCl) gases on impact. 

- Minutes: Plastics, small appliances, marble, etc. can discolor.

- Hours: Grout, fiberglass, plumbing fixtures (chrome), brass, coated steel, appliances, hard wood and upholstered furniture can discolor.

- Days: Painted walls and ceilings can discolor, plated metals pit
and rust, vinyl floors, clothing and upholstery can permanently stain.

- Weeks: Carpets can discolor, plated metals corrode, glass,
crystal and china can etch and pit.

All of which could be permanent or non-cost effective by means of restoration.

6.8) Smoke and Soot: Smoke can be gases, vapor or solid and is generally brown in color, which can change to white/gray when mixed with the water actions of firefighters.  Black smoke is generally from burning plastics, which can also change colors when mixed with water.

Soot or PIC's (particles of incomplete combustion) are the by-products of a fire that did not burn efficiently, and are produced when a fire was not hot enough or did not have enough oxygen to fully burn.  Soot or PIC's can be organic or inorganic matter and based on the fuel source, a combination of organic and inorganic soot could be deposited throughout.

Smoke could contain gaseous by-products such as; carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide (which are toxic and deadly), acrolein (which is an irritant and a potential toxin) and hydrogen chloride (which is toxic irritant and highly corrosive).

PIC's and smoke are deposited throughout a structure through turbulence and wavelengths.  Hot smoke and soot travel towards cool air and matter, which is caused when heat increases the internal energy of an object causing disorder in an objects’ atoms and molecules. 

Organic materials are carbons and produce nitrogen (NO₂), while inorganic materials produce sulfur (SO₂) when burned.  Both of which are hydrocarbons, and hydrocarbons can be carcinogenic.

Smoke and soot can form on sides, tops and undersides of content items such as; chairs, tables, appliances, equipment, machinery, etc. 

When structural components within a room have signs of smoke and soot deposits, be it gaseous vapors or solids, content items are generally affected. 

6.8.a) Gases: Oxidation at a loss site can vary from room to room and within a room, possibly due to the cooling of gases as they travel throughout a structure, for hot gaseous particles move faster than colder gaseous particles.  Gaseous particles move at the speed of sound in all directions, as gaseous particles become hotter their speed increases, causing moving gaseous particles to crash into billions of other particles each second.  This is due to the way gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen react to temperatures.

When matter is decomposed, gaseous chemicals are produced and their behavior is kinetic energy.  As the temperature of the gaseous particles increase, their impacting rate are intensified and could affect surfaces.  This is especially true of metals and hydrogen chloride gases when combined; which can create a soluble stimulus or influential reaction of the metals molecules.

Gas molecules are so intensive that the volume of gas particles within a 22.4 liter container at 0º C can contain 602 billion trillion particles (602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000).  While these gas particles can expand by their same fraction at each degree that the temperature rises.

6.9) Smoke and Soot Categorizing:  The post conditions from a fire, smoke and soot loss can be categorized into three grades; those being light, medium and heavy:

Light conditions:  Light-soiling deposits of smoke and soot can be neutralized with basic cleaning detergents and skills.

Medium conditions:  Moderate-soiling deposits of smoke and soot could require a more aggressive chemical and moderate skills to neutralize.

Heavy conditions:  Heavy smoke and soot deposits could require extensive cleaning methods, as well as refinishing or replacement.

Fire and smoke losses can produce all three grades of soiling within a single structure due to the following listed variables: source (fuel), pattern, temperature, oxygen, pressure, water use, combustion, moisture and time.  Dependent on the fuel source, temperature and time, some light and medium surfaces could require sealing and painting after the surfaces are mitigated and cleaned.

6.10) Loss Site Specifics: After the structure has been determined safe, the following specifics should be determined:

  - Time fire started and was extinguished
  - Extinguishing method
  - Was water used? If water was used, number of gallons used?
  - Origin room
  - Fuel source of fire
  - Extent of damages
  - Temperature, humidity and dew point
  - Surface types on a room per room basis
  - Severity of damages, heavy, medium or light
  - Available power and light
  - Cost Vs value

The aforementioned information would aid the mitigation process when determining what can or cannot be mitigated and/or restored, and help when performing a business impact analysis as outlined in Section 6.13.
 

Value of Kw at Various Temperatures
K = Equilibrium Constant, w = Water
Source: Cotton-Lynch, Chemistry an
Investigative Approach
Table 6-A
 

6.10.a) Extinguishing Methods: The extinguishing method used to control and put out a fire can have adverse affects, and should be classified as incidental damages.

The following extinguishing methods are commonly used to control and put out fires:

  - Water
  - Foam
  - Gases
  - Halogen
  - Dry chemicals

Water, foam and gases can be mixed by firefighters when extinguishing a fire, while dry chemicals, halogen and carbon dioxide are used when water and foams can cause danger to life, such as electrical fires.

Certain dry chemicals and halogen systems contain chlorides (Cl) which are corrosive to metals and electrical equipment, while foams can entrap hydrogen chloride (HCl) gases when produced during a fire.

The extinguishing agent used, amount of the agent used, and where used should be obtained from the fire department.  This information is very useful when evaluating a loss site as to what cleaning agents should or should not be used.  The fire class could be helpful when determining what extinguishing methods were used.

6.10.b) Fire Classes: The United States and Great Britain have developed fire classification to determine what extinguishing agents should or should not be used:

  U.S. Classes:

  - Class A:  wood, paper, cloth, and some plastics
  - Class B:  flammable liquids, gases and grease
  - Class C:  electrical fires
  - Class D:  combustible metals

  British Classes:

  - Class A:  Carbon compounds that form glowing embers
  - Class B:  Liquid or liquefiable solids
      - B1:  Water miscible  
      - B2:  Non-miscible with water
  - Class C:  Flammable gases or vapors
  - Class D:  Metal fires
  - Class E:  Electrical fires

Fire and Smoke: Page: 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - Next

Extracted from the Loss Recovery Guide with Standards (LRGS)
© Copyright 1998-2008 William Yobe

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6.10.c) Time Fire Started and was Extinguished: The time the fire started and was extinguished can be used to determine the severity of surface conditions.  The time frames found in Section 6.7 is pertinent to metal, porcelain and fine wood surfaces when the fuel source contains plastic and the fire was extinguished using water.

6.10.d) Water Usage: Firefighter actions can deposit 100's to 1000's of gallons of water when extinguishing a fire.  The amount of water used to extinguish the fire, the atmospheric temperature, humidity and dew point of the structure would help determine the amount of drying equipment, and the time frame needed to dry the structure and its contents. 

When the origin room and adjoining rooms contains extensive amounts of moisture, it/they should be isolated from the balance of the structure.  The isolating of high moisture rooms from the balance of the structure could delay corrosive reactions and secondary damages (mold) within the balance of the structure.

Before the restorative drying process begins, an assessment of the loss site should be performed using the p1m.com Critical Recovery Flow Chart.

6.10.e) Moisture: Moisture is a natural occurring by-product of combustion.  The combustion of both organic and inorganic materials such as; gypsum wallboard, plaster, wood, nylon, etc. when decomposed will produce moisture through vaporization when the solid transforms into a gaseous vapor.

Fires extinguished with carbon dioxide and foam a/k/a dry chemicals, can retain and seal in moisture for a considerable time. (ref. 6.10.a)

Regardless of the fuel source or extinguishing method, temperature, humidity and dew point readings should be taken and restorative drying should start when humidity conditions are at 41% or higher or when there is standing water.

6.11) Fire Source and Types of Materials Ignited:  The fuel source or types of materials that burned can be used to determine the types of soot particles to be removed or neutralized,.

Soot residue could be organic, synthetic, or a combination of both.  The soot composition could be oily, dry, greasy or acidic, or a combination of all four. 

Hazardous building materials such as lead, asbestos, and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB's) when decomposed produce toxic gases that could linger for days after a fire. 

When PCB's are a known fuel source and PCB soot is deposited throughout a structure, the structure and its contents would require an extensive decontamination.  PCB is a listed hazard with the ATSDR (ref. 3.21).

When building components or content items made from or containing polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are decomposed, the impacting of hydrogen chloride (HCl) gases on metal surfaces could be present, requiring inspection, testing and confirmation before neutralizing of metal surfaces.

The method, chemical agents and equipment required for mitigation is best determined after the fuel source, types of materials ignited and decomposed are identified, and the physical make-up of the surface being mitigated is determined.

6.12) Temperature, Humidity and Dew-Point:  Temperature, humidity and dew point readings should be taken and recorded at the loss sites at the start of the project and on a daily basis until the project is completed.

6.13) Business Impact Analysis (BIA): A business  impact analysis identifying the effect a loss has on an organization should be required as part of the organizations contingency plan. The specific information outlined in Section 6.10 could aid risk managers when performing an impact analysis, and should be helpful when determining:

  - Financial and non-financial costs
  - Establishing time window of recovery
  - Preliminary assessment of materials and equipment

6.13.a) Fuel Source: Fuel sources could be organic or inorganic.  Fuels such as; wood, coal, oil, lime and foods produce the by-products carbon dioxide, while nylon, polyester, and plastics produce the by-product sulfur dioxide.

Hydrogen chloride (HCl) can be produced from both organic and inorganic matter, while polyvinyl chloride (PVC) produces HCl when decomposed. 

When the fuel source is being determined, surface types, reaction time, condition and location should be used to prioritize the mitigation of the surface. 

6.13.b) Damage Vs Value: Before mitigation services begin, the values of mitigation, restoration and reconstruction should be pre-determined.

The value to mitigate and restore may exceed the value to replace when business interruption (BI) insurance costs are factored. However, the excess costs to mitigate and restore, may or may not be the responsibility of the insurer.

Cost to perform board-up procedures may exceed value if replacement materials such as windows, doors, roofing, siding, etc. are not presently available, or when safety, health, or vandalism is an issue.

6.13.c) Temporary Power and Light: Loss sites where the electrical power is turned-off or disabled and natural illumination does not meet the minimum requirements set forth by OSHA, should be illuminated by a temporary means.  Generator or temporary service mast is acceptable temporary power sources, while the back feeding of an electrical system within a structure should only be performed by, or under the direct supervision of a licensed or certified electrician.

Secondary damages of corrosion to wiring, conduits, boxes, panels, etc., could be delayed or put in a state of dormancy when energized.

6.13.d) Secondary Damage: Fire and smoke losses could create secondary damage such as; mold and corrosion when not mitigated in a timely manner or proper fashion. 

6.13.e) Mold: Mold (fungi) growth after a fire loss is generally secondary damage caused by extinguishing water that produces excessive humidity, while stagnant air and high temperatures stimulate mold growth.

6.13.f) Origin Room: The mitigation of building components or content items within the  origin room should not commence until the cause and origin (C&O) evaluation process is completed, and access is granted by the person in charge of the C&O process. (ref.1.10)

6.13.g) Corrosion (Rust) Damage: Rust caused by carbonic acids and hydrochloric acid would be a red/orange colored rust and have a powder like scale.  Corrosion (rust) under usual environments is called an electrochemical phenomenon and is the reaction of moisture and oxygen to metal surfaces, and defined as a cathodic reaction.  The use of inhibitor pigments or paints greatly enhance corrosion resistance which restrict the flow of galvanic currents and prevent cathodic reactions.

Corrosion (rust) caused by hydrogen chloride gases, hydrochloric acid and heat from a fire or smoke loss produce an accelerated rate of free energy known as electrokinetics.  Electrokinetics release positive and negative ions that cause electromotive forces (EMF's) as found in the electromotive or electrochemical series.  These electrical forces or electron actions when forced from the atom produce EMF’s that can be measured in milligauss (mG).  EMF’s cause metal molecules to align as shown in Figure 6-13-A and 6-13-B.

Domain Aligned Molecules in Iron
Source: Bell Labs, Division of Lucent Technologies &
The Illustrated Science and Invention Encyclopedia
Figure 6-13-A

Right Angle and Domain Align of an Alnico Alloy
Source: Bell Labs, Division of Lucent Technologies &
The Illustrated Science and Invention Encyclopedia
Figure 6-13-B

Figures 6-13-A and 6-13-B are the © 1999 Bell Labs,
Lucent Technologies, Inc.  Reprinted with permission of
Lucent Technologies, Inc., Murray Hill, NJ
 

EMF's caused from hydrochloric acid, although still producing measurable actions, could decrease considerably when air and surface temperatures drop to or below freezing as shown in
Table 6-A.

The free energy produced on metal surfaces during corrosion is an anodic reaction and the corrosion area is the cathodic area.  The following formulas are anodic reactions:The potential current range where EMF’s are produced is shown
in Figure 6-13-C below

Potential-Current Diagram
Source: The Making Shaping and Treating of Steel
© 1999 American Iron and Steel Engineers Foundation
Pittsburgh, PA - AISE Steel Foundation
Figure 6-13-C

Listed below are electromotive forces caused from hydrogen chloride, hydrochloric acid heat, varying chemicals, etc. resulting in pre-mature corrosion:

• Thermal action: Produces EMF's when a temperature in a conductor (metal) varies in magnitude

• Chemical action: Certain combinations of chemicals will generate EMF's

• Contact action: Two different materials when brought together will produce EMF's

• Crystal action: Certain crystals such as salt have the property to produce EMF's, while heat can further increase crystal EMF's

Thermionic emission: The heating of a metal to a high enough temperature, so the free electrons in the metal breaks through the surface of the metal.

Secondary emission: The bombarding of a metal surface with electrons or ions (electrically charged particles of matter) of sufficiently high kinetic energy.

Electromagnetic induction:  When sufficient energy is produced, the magnetic field of the affected matter will continually change and produce EMF's,

Acids, both hydrochloric and carbonic cause charged bodies to be passed from the metal to the chemical increasing a metals’ free energy, resulting in the driving force behind the accelerated oxidation rates,